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“My spelling is Wobbly. It's good spelling but it Wobbles, and the letters get in the wrong places”
Introduction to palaeography
Palaeography is the analysis of ancient handwriting for characteristic features, use of punctuation, spelling and date conventions.
Undertaking such analysis helps us to accurately read what is written in archive documents, and can help us to determine the likely date and provenance of a manuscript which has not been dated or signed.
The following terms are commonly used when talking about palaeography:
- Manuscript - A handwritten script, or a document that has been handwritten rather than typed
- Cursive - Descriptor applied to text where individual characters in a word are joined together
- Abbreviation - The shortening of a word, either by suspension or contraction of letters
- Suspension - The omission of letters from the end of a word
- Contraction - The omission of letters from the middle of a word
- Brevigraph - A special character used to stand in for a sequence of two or more letters
- Tilde - An accent used to indicate the omission of letters from a word
- Superscript characters - Characters written above the text line, often used to indicate a contraction or suspension
- Engrossing hand - A larger and bolder writing format, employed to emphasise a section of text
- Line fillers - Marks employed to use up space at the end of a line of text in order to make that line of text appear justified; can often look like punctuation but do not signify anything

Early Modern Scripts
Across the centuries there have been trends in handwriting styles.
Distinct styles of handwriting are known as ‘scripts’, and individual examples or variations of a script are known as ‘hands’. There are three main writing styles that a researcher using archival material in English should be aware of; these are Court, Secretary and Italic.
Court script was used for official records produced by central government. Each government office developed its own distinct style and clerks were required to write in compliance with that style. Variations include Chancery, Common Pleas, Exchequer and Pipe Office hands. Only researchers using records of central government are unlikely to encounter Court script.
Secretary script was used for business, personal and literary purposes. It was well established by 1525 but was beginning to decline in use by 1650. By 1700 it had been influenced heavily by Italic script characteristics and survived as a mixed style rather than as a distinct style in its own right. Even so, Secretary script was the most commonly used style in the Early Modern period and researchers working in this period are very likely to encounter it.
Italic script existed alongside Secretary script and was becoming common by 1550. It was more simple and easier to read, quicker to learn and quicker to write. It eventually outlasted Secretary script to become the dominant style of the 18th and 19th centuries, and the one we are most familiar with today.
Because of the co-existence of Secretary and Italic in England during our period, it is common to find documents written in a hand which contains features taken from both scripts. If using Early Modern documents held by local authority and university archive services, it is most likely that you will encounter Secretary hands and mixed Secretary-Italic hands. The practice examples later on this page course reflect this reality.
For examples of common Early Modern scripts, please see the uploaded PDF below:
- Examples of Early Modern English Scripts PDF containing images showing samples of handwriting in Court, Secretary and Italic scripts
Characteristics of Secretary script
Upon first inspection, documents written in Secretary hands can look illegible.
It might seem like some of the letter forms show little resemblance to modern versions of the same letter. However, each letter has a set form which can be easily detected once learnt. It can often be easier to read documents written in Secretary hands than those written in later 19th century hands with less rigid character construction.
For examples of the secretary alphabet please see the uploaded PDF below:
- The Secretary Alphabet PDF containing examples of characters from the Secretary alphabet
In addition to having characteristic letter forms, Secretary hands display characteristic features in the areas of abbreviation, punctuation, and capitalisation of words.
Abbreviations were employed liberally. These could be indicated by the use of superscript letters with a dot placed underneath them at the end of a word. They could also be indicated by the use of a tilde, an accent which looks like ‘ ̃ ’, above a letter in the middle or at the end of a word.
Common abbreviations include the following:
- ‘wch’ for ‘which’
- ‘wth’ for ‘with’
- ‘ye’ for ‘the’
- ‘yt’ for ‘that’
- ‘mt’ for words ending in ‘ment’
- ‘aforesḍ’ for ‘aforesaid’
- ‘Lḍ’ for ‘Lord’
- ‘Esqr’ for ‘Esquire’
- ‘honoble’ for ‘honourable’
- ‘do’ for ‘ditto’
- ‘Ao’ for ‘Anno’
- ‘lres’ for ‘letters’
- ‘matie’ for ‘majestie’
- ‘gentl̃’ for ‘gentleman’
- ‘com̃endacions’ for ‘commendations’, or any such words containing double consonants
- ‘l’ ‘s’ ‘d’ for ‘pounds’ ‘shillings’ ‘pence’
Please see the following uploaded PDF for images showing examples of common abbreviations and contractions, which have been taken from archival material:
- Examples of Common Abbreviations PDF containing images of common abbreviations taken from archival documents
A further way words were abbreviated in Secretary script was through the use of Brevigraphs; a common and familiar one being the ampersand or ‘&’ to mean ‘and’; another common one being the ampersand c or ‘&c’ to mean ‘etcetera’. However, other common graphs with which we might not be familiar include the following:
- Thorn graph indicated by a ‘y’ or ‘þ’ and used to represent ‘th’
- Terminal ‘es’ graph indicated by a looped down stroke and used to represent ‘es’ at the end of words
- Chi-Rho graph indicated by ‘xp’ and used to represent ‘Christ’, i.e. ‘xpopher’ for ‘Christopher’
- P with a looped strike through the descender, used to represent a ‘per’ or ‘par’ beginning to a word , i.e. ‘pson’ for ‘person’, ‘pfect’ for ‘perfect’, ‘ptie’ for ‘partie’
- Er graph indicated by an upstroke ending in a backward facing hook, used to represent ‘er’ in the middle or at the end of words
- Ur graph indicated by a superscript r, used to represent ‘ur’ in the middle or at the end of words, i.e. ‘yor’ for ‘your’ or ‘apprtenances’ for ‘appurtenances’
Please see the following uploaded PDF for images showing examples of common brevigraphs, which have been taken from archival material:
- Examples of Common Brevigraphs PDF containing images of common brevigraphs taken from archive documents
Punctuation was used in different ways and less consistently than we would now use it. Common things to look out for include the following:
- The use of the ‘/’ symbol, known as a virgule, to signal the end of a sentence, and not the full stop with which we are familiar
- The use of the ‘=’ symbol in place of a hyphen
- The use of ‘()’ parenthesise around text where we might now use quotation marks
A final point to think about is that capitalisation of words was not consistent with how we might employ it today. Capitals can appear in the middle of sentences, are sometimes used to emphasise a word, and might not be used where we would expect them to be used. Capital letters can also look significantly different to their modern equivalents, which can make them difficult to decipher. In some instances, capitals are signified by two lowercase letters joined together as in the case of ‘F’ often appearing as ‘ff’.
Palaeography Exercises
Have a go at practicing your palaeography skills by trying these exercises.
If you are working in an archive and come across early modern handwriting, archivists will help you read the odd tricky word but cannot transcribe whole passages for you. It is therefore worthwhile arming yourself with some prior experience by trying the practice exercises below.
Exercises are based on documents taken from Hull History Centre's collections. For each example, try to decipher the writing and create a transcription using the conventions outlined on this guide's Transcription page. Efforts can be checked against the completed accurate transcriptions.
- Palaeography exercise number 1: C BRB/3 PNG image of document reference C BRB/3 from Hull History Centre's collections
- Transcription for palaeography exercise number 1: C BRB/3 Word document containing completed transcription for accuracy checking
- Palaeography exercise number 2: C BRF/6/95 PNG image of document reference C BRF/6/95 from Hull History Centre's collections
- Transcription for palaeography exercise number 2: C BRF/6/95 Word document containing completed transcription for accuracy checking
- Palaeography exercise number 3: C BRL/26 PNG image of document reference C BRL/26 from Hull History Centre's collections
- Transcription for palaeography exercise number 3: C BRL/26 Word document containing completed transcription for accuracy checking
- Palaeography exercise number 4: U DDHO/1/72 PNG image of document reference U DDHO/1/72 from Hull History Centre's collections
- Transcription for palaeography exercise number 4: U DDHO/1/72 Word document containing completed transcription for accuracy checking
- Palaeography exercise number 5: U DDHO/1/33 PNG image of document reference U DDHO/1/33 from Hull History Centre's collections
- Transcription for palaeography exercise number 5: U DDHO/1/33 Word document containing completed transcription for accuracy checking
- English Palaeography 1500-1700 An Online Course An online tutorial for English handwriting 1500 - 1700 from the University of Cambridge
- Online Tuition in the Palaeography of Scottish Documents, 1500-1750 Scottish handwriting tutorial from the National Records of Scotland
- Palaeography: Reading Old Handwriting 1500-1800, A Practical Online Tutorial An online palaeography tutorial from The National Archives
A Guide to Western Historical Scripts from Antiquity to 1600 by For readers who wish to trace the evolution of scripts in the West from antiquity to the early modern period, and who want to read the work of their scribes, this volume provides a wide-ranging collection of materials supported by 55 full-page illustrations from manuscripts. Brown provides a synopsis of each of the major phases of development, a bibliography at the beginning of each section, and comments on regional and chronological diffusion where appropriate. Each plate is accompanied by a facing page of commentary giving a brief description of the manuscript and its script, followed by a transcription of the text.
Call Number: OR 411.7 [Hull City Libraries]ISBN: 0802072062Publication Date: 1993-11-30Some examples of English handwriting from Essex offical, ecclesiastic, estate and family archives of the 12th to the 17th century by Essential reading for research with transcripts and translations.
Call Number: Z 115 E5 G8Publication Date: 1950More examples of English handwriting from Essex parish records of the 13th to the 18th century by Essential reading for research with transcripts and translations.
Call Number: Z 115 E5 G8Publication Date: 1950Reading Tudor and Stuart Handwriting by Guide produced by the British Association for Local History
Call Number: [Hull History Centre Reference]ISBN: 1860772374Publication Date: 2003Latin Palaeography by This work, by the greatest living authority on medieval palaeography, offers the most comprehensive and up-to-date account in any language of the history of Latin script. It also contains a detailed account of the role of the book in cultural history from antiquity to the Renaissance, which outlines the history of book illumination. Designed as a textbook, it contains a full and updated bibliography. Because the volume sets the development of Latin script in its cultural context, it also provides an unrivalled introduction to the nature of medieval Latin culture. It will be used extensively in the teaching of latin palaeography, and is unlikely to be superseded.
Call Number: Z 114 B6ISBN: 0521364736Publication Date: 1990-03-30The Local Historian's Encyclopedia by An encyclopaedia for local historians which includes guidance on palaeography
Call Number: DA 600 R5ISBN: 095036567XPublication Date: 1986The handwriting of English documents by
Call Number: Z 115 E5 H4Publication Date: 1966An excellent introduction to English scripts 850-1537, with photographic examples and transcriptions.